On the other hand, we and others have also established the presence of a strong pro-inflammatory phenotype in CCM lesions, which appears to involve an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) (Antognelli et al., 2018; Marchi et al., 2015; Retta and Glading, 2016), VEGF-A (DiStefano and Glading, 2020; DiStefano et al., 2014; Kar, 2015) and NF-κB activation (Goitre et al., 2017). This evidence concerns the gene NFKB1 and cerebral cavernous malformation.