TNF and multiple system atrophy: After four weeks following intravenous injection of MSCs in a mouse model of MSA, Stemberger et al. [30] found significant reductions in levels of IL-1, IL-2, IL-6, IL-17, and TNF-alpha, inhibition of inflammatory immune responses, reduction in astrocyte and microglia activation in the brains of MSA animals, and recovery in the total number of TH+ neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNC) [30, 31].