CTLA‐4, cytotoxic T‐lymphocyte‐associated protein 4; EGFR, epidermal growth factor receptor; GARP, glycoprotein A repetitions predominant; GM‐CSF, granulocyte–macrophage colony‐stimulating factor; HCC, hepatocellular carcinoma; HMGA2, high mobility group A2; mAb, monoclonal antibody; NSCLC, non‐small‐cell lung cancer; PARPi, poly ADP‐ribose polymerase inhibition therapy; PD‐1, programmed death 1; PD‐L1, programmed death ligand 1; siRNA, small interfering RNA; TGF‐β, transforming growth factor‐β; TGF‐βR, transforming growth factor‐β receptor; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor. Here, CSF2 is linked to non-small cell lung carcinoma.