In order to elucidate expression changes in NAFLD, we assessed the protein levels of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), Unc-51-like autophagy-activating kinase 1 (ULK1) and its phosphorylated state, light chain 3 (LC3; also known as MAP1LC3), sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) and mitofusin 2 (MFN2) in liver samples by western blotting (Fig. 5A,B). This evidence concerns the gene ULK1 and metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease.