TNF and dengue disease: Additionally, LPS is not only a potent activator of inflammatory pathways through several interactions, including LPS-binding protein (LBP), soluble cluster of differentiation 14 (sCD14), and Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), on monocytes and macrophages [10] but also acts synergistically with dengue virus to induce the production of platelet activating factor (PAF) and other inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-1β, which could contribute to dengue disease severity [11].