TNF and tuberculosis: The group of patients with combined HIV/TB infection before the start of dual therapy (anti-tubercular and antiretroviral) had reduced expression of the Th1 cytokines interferon-γ (IFN-γ), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-2 (IL-2) compared with the group of patients with HIV monoinfection and TB monoinfection (Figure 1).