Indeed, although in vitro studies show that astrocytes overexpressing an ALS-linked mutant (M337V) TDP-43 or lacking TDP-43 do not affect the survival of co-cultured wild-type motor neurons [46,47], a recent study demonstrates neuronal toxicity induced by co-cultured primary astrocytes overexpressing TDP-43 [48]. This evidence concerns the gene TARDBP and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.