TNF and neoplasm: On the other hand, vasculature-targeted low-dose TNF-α has also been shown to activate ECs; stabilize tumor vessels; and enhance anti-tumor immunity in pancreatic neuroendocrine, colorectal, and melanoma tumor models (Calcinotto et al., 2012; Johansson et al., 2012; Lu et al., 2015; Shen et al., 2016).