TNF and atherosclerosis: TRANCE and TRAIL are ligands of osteoprotegerin and although these three members of the TNF superfamily have been linked to atherosclerosis, e.g. with plasma levels of osteoprotegerin associated with CVD, and worsened atherosclerosis after genetic deletion of TRAIL in the apoE knockout mouse model, respectively, their effects and underlying mechanisms in atherosclerosis are unclear48,52.