Rodrigues et al. (2012) showed a positive correlation between cardiac damage and cardiac fibrosis in biopsies from patients who died after CCC complications. TNF-α induces cardiomyocyte apoptosis and activates nitric oxide synthase 2 (NOS2) to produce NO, which contributes to tissue damage during chronic infection in Chagas’ disease (Finkel et al., 1992; Tostes et al., 2005). Here, TNF is linked to Chagas disease.