Caspase-1−/− (Fig. 5d) and Asc−/− BMDMs (Fig. 5e) in contrast showed significantly reduced IL-1β levels upon infection, indicating that NLRP3 inflammasome components (ASC) and targets (caspase-1) function upstream of GSDMD and have a potential dual role in cell death and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. This evidence concerns the gene IL1B and infection.