CD163 and carcinoma: Interestingly, CD163+ macrophages are associated with reduced tumor effector functions (designated “non-cytotoxic,” in contrast to inflammatory-type M1 macrophages); and in carcinoma studies, the CD163+ M2 subset is known for co-expression or tumor-induction of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) family molecules (which drives early tumor vascularization) [8, 13], immunosuppressive cytokines, and poor outcomes [8−10].