TNF and inflammatory bowel disease: Yet, this is of great importance due to recent reports on the ability of CGNs to magnify pathogen-induced inflammation in the intestine of mice [19], contribute to inflammatory bowel disease aggravation [20,21], and enhance lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα) and interleukin-8 (IL-8) [19,22].