TNF and Parkinson disease: 1-Methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP), which is known as a potent neurotoxin, has been used for establishing PD in animal models, and it led to astrocyte/microglia activation, pro-inflammatory cytokine release (TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6) and NF-κB activation in brain, as well as behavioral impairment [138,151,152].