TNF and epilepsy: In rodent models of KA- or PTZ-induced epilepsy, increased levels of seizure behavior, microglial activation markers (Iba-1, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, iNOS, and COX-2), NF-κB activation, apoptosis-related proteins (Bax and caspase-3/8/9) and ROS were confirmed in the hippocampus [48,61,72,73,74,75,76].