TNF and infection: Increased levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-17 (IL-17), and to a lesser extent, interleukin-8 (IL-8) and interleukin-10 (IL-10) represent nonspecific signals of inflammation, but cannot distinguish inflammation in the setting of infection from a drug-related inflammatory response (Larsen et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2021).