Compared with paroxysmal AF, the differentially expressed genes in persistent AF mainly involved phagosomes, complement and coagulation cascade, osteoclast differentiation, leishmaniasis, malaria, African trypanosomiasis, neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction, PPAR signaling pathway, whooping cough, and ovarian steroid hormone production (Figure 3F). This evidence concerns the gene PPARA and malaria.