At the human level, the analysis of intestinal tissue biopsies from 27 MS patients and 27 control individuals revealed an altered TGF-β-dependent Th-cell differentiation pattern in the lamina propria with increased frequencies of inflammatory T cells and reduced FoxP3 expression (132), a process akin to the defective TGF-β1/Smad signaling in IBD (134). Here, TGFB1 is linked to inflammatory bowel disease.