Inflammatory cytokines including interleukin-1beta (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β), and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) induce endothelial dysfunction and the acquisition of mesenchymal properties, therefore contributing to atherosclerosis (18–20). Here, TNF is linked to endothelial dysfunction.