Independent of immune-mediated destruction, SNPs tagged to genes involved in the regulation of apoptosis (protein tyrosine phosphatase non-receptor 2 (PTPN2): rs1893217 and tumor necrosis factor, alpha-induced protein 3 (TNFAIP3): rs2327832) have been associated with T1D, with the risk variants resulting in increased apoptosis of β-cells (88, 89). Here, TNFAIP3 is linked to type 1 diabetes mellitus.