TNF and atherosclerosis: Advanced glycosylated compounds (AGEs) are complex compounds produced by nonenzymatic glycosylation and oxidation of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids; they can activate AGE-RAGE signaling pathway, MAPK signaling pathway, and NF-κB signaling pathway, leading to the expression of proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-1, IL-6, and TNF–α, and the release of VCAM1, VEGF, and RAGE, so as to promote the development of atherosclerosis [35].