It was found that they contain proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin IL-1, IL-6 and tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), and can induce leukocytes to release inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin IL-1β, IL-6, IL-17, interferon-gamma, TNF-α, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and matrix metalloproteinase MMP-6 and MMP-9, which promote endothelial inflammation, worsening vascular integrity and endothelial dysfunction [139]. Here, TNF is linked to endothelial dysfunction.