In addition, the present results suggest a mechanism behind how EspF increases the ability of different pathogenic E. coli to reinforce their colonization inside epithelial cells through inactivation of MAD2L2 protein, which, in turn, leads to activation of the anaphase-promoting complex APC/cyclosome, thus inhibiting epithelial cell turnover and reducing E. coli removal from the site of infection. Here, MAD2L2 is linked to infection.