KLK3 and posterior cortical atrophy: In light of the above, coupled with indismissible confounders such as benign prostate hypertrophy (BPH) and aging, the use of PSA as a standalone surrogate biomarker of cancerization, disease progression, or prognosis in patients with PCa, remains incongruous with available evidence, necessitating the discovery of supplementary PSA—related biomarkers.