TNF and brain ischemia: TNF-α is acutely and chronically expressed by neurons, astrocytes and microglia after cerebral ischemia, and is implicated in mediating brain injury through several mechanisms such as BBB disruption, activation of leukocytes and glia, enhanced expression of adhesion molecules, thrombogenesis, apoptotic neuronal death, promotion of glutamatergic excitotoxicity through increased expression of AMPA receptors and inhibition of inhibitory GABA receptors [57].