For macrophages, Pujantell et al. found that ADAR1 modulates the recognition of foreign RNA in the cytoplasm, such that when ADAR1 is silenced, MDA5 and RIG-1 recognize HIV-1 RNAs, leading to the activation of MAVS and TBK as well as their downstream effectors IRF3 and IRF7 (these can also be induced by Type I IFN and ISGs), thereby inhibiting HIV-1 infection [129]. This evidence concerns the gene ADAR and HIV-1 infection.