TNF and colitis: For instance, in 2008, Cummins et al. [47] demonstrated for the first time that activation of the HIF pathway by mimicking hypoxia through pharmacologic hydroxylase inhibition significantly reduced disease severity and levels of inflammatory markers IL-1β, IL-6, IL-12, and TNF-α via stabilization of HIF-1α in a mouse model of DSS-induced colitis [47].