TNF and colitis: Furthermore, artesunate reportedly reduced expression of IFN-γ, IL-17, and TNF-α in experimental colitis (40), inhibited TLR4-NF-κB signaling pathway (41), promoted apoptosis of macrophages and DCs, and reduced TNF-α and IL-12 production in vivo and in vitro (42) while suppressing excessive ER stress (43), cell apoptosis and inflammatory responses via the NF-κB pathway (44, 45).