Increased levels of IL-2, TNF-α, and IL-12 cytokines and LIX (CXCL5, RANTES) (Fig. 3a) chemokine in HF groups suggest that short-term HF diet induces low-grade inflammation in the small intestine by activating the NF-κB pathway and the recruiting M1 macrophages, consistent with previous observations55–58. Here, CXCL5 is linked to hydrops fetalis.