In higher doses, 3HB-Na caused kidney damage, as evidenced by a rise in plasma creatinine and a dose-dependent response in the kidney damage markers Kim1 and Vnn1. This kidney damage was probably not a consequence of hyper-inflammation, as 3HB-Na doses did not affect plasma TNFα nor renal Tnf expression. The gene discussed is VNN1; the disease is Nephropathy.