﻿The active cytokine milieu, including elevated Th1 cytokines, IL2, IFNγ, and TNFα, is believed to drive the classical pro-inflammatory (M1) macrophage activation, while a proportion of anti-inflammatory M2 macrophages tends to be higher in other types of interstitial lung diseases (ILDs), including idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) (26). Here, TNF is linked to idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.