TNF and COVID-19: The anti-inflammatory effects of E2 in innate immunity include inhibition of the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 and IL-1β, tumor necrosis factor-α, monocytes, and macrophages which is a major factor in the COVID-19 cytokine storm (Chen R. et al., 2021) and powerful inhibition of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), thereby preventing innate immune cells, especially neutrophils and monocytes, from migrating to inflammatory areas.