Switching to increased expression of TNF-α, IL-12p35 and CXCLi1 by S. Gallinarum-infected chMoDCs from 6 to 24 h post-infection might have been due to increased bacterial survival and higher expression of costimulatory molecules, which may have increased expression of these molecules synergistically during the late phase of infection (24 h). Here, TNF is linked to infection.