To model this condition, we modified hHO culture conditions to reflect reported physiological levels of glucose and insulin in normal mothers (3.5 mM glucose, 170 pM insulin, normoglycemic hHOs or NHOs)45, and reported diabetic conditions for females with type I and type II pregestational diabetes (11.1 mM glucose and 1.14 nM insulin, pregestational diabetes hHOs or PGDHOs)45,46. Here, INS is linked to diabetes mellitus.