TLR4 and central nervous system cancer: Treatment of glioma cells (e.g., A172 and LN229) with pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α in vitro increased the expression of TLR-4 and associated accessory molecules like MyD88, TIRAP, TRAF6, and IRF-3, which in-turn stimulated NF-κB and IFN-β, leading to the creation of an inflammatory environment conducive for cell proliferation [187].