TNF and glioblastoma: In GBM cell lines U-251 and U-87, the interaction of Ras (an oncogene) with TNFα/IL-1β was found to increase hypersecretion of IL-6/IL-8 cytokines and activation of the p38 MAPK signaling pathway, leading to the creation of an inflammatory microenvironment conducive for cancer progression [36].