In combination with oxidative stress, inflammation is implicated in the progression of CKD due to increased production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1 (IL-1) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) with IL6 and TNF-α being strong inducers of vascular calcification (30). Here, TNF is linked to chronic kidney disease.