Further studies are needed to investigate galectin-1 and galectin-9 mediated signaling in TV–BV–HPV interactions, to what extend they may be protective and whether our finding of suppressed innate immune responses in mixed HPV–TV infections versus TV alone relates to susceptibility to cervical cancer observed in women with TV (Gram et al., 1992; Viikki et al., 2000; Misra and Singh, 2006; Depuydt et al., 2010; Rodriguez-Cerdeira et al., 2012). The gene discussed is LGALS1; the disease is infection.