TNF and neoplasm: For example, M1-macrophages are considered to possess anti-tumor functions by phagocytosing and producing Th1‐promoting cytokines, such as IL‐12, IL‐23, and TNF‐α, while M2‐macrophages are thought to have pro-tumor functions by regulating angiogenesis, suppressing immune surveillance, promoting inflammation, and stimulating cancer cell motility by secreting growth factors and chemokines (IL‐10, TGF‐β, PD‐L1, and ARG‐1) (Engblom et al., 2016).