TNF and type 2 diabetes mellitus: Our previous study showed that PBMCs from T2DM patients demonstrated an enhanced cellular responsiveness to phytohemagglutinin (PHA), marked by lower interferon (IFN)-γ production, lower indoleamine 2,3 dioxygenase production, and higher TNF-α/IFN-γ and IL-6/IFN-γ ratios compared to normoglycemic participants (13, 14).