TNF and cardiac hypertrophy: The cAMP signaling, cGMP-PKG signaling, and dilated cardiomyopathy pathways are closely related to myocardial hypertrophy, while adrenergic signaling in cardiomyocytes, the TNF signaling pathway, the mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway, the AGEs-RAGE pathway, and chemokine signaling are strongly associated with cardiac fibrosis (Figures 4C,D).