NLRP3 and COVID-19: The SARS-CoV-2 S protein promotes NLRP3 inflammasome activation and IL-1β secretion in COVID-19 patient-derived macrophages, and stimulation of the S protein upregulates both IL-1β and TNF-α; however, TNF-α is secreted in an NLRP3 inflammasome-independent manner [8].