The physiological roles of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) have been shown to include regulation of hematopoiesis as a part of BM niche.162 Autonomic nerve denervation reduced the number of active TGF-β-producing cells and led to rapid loss of HSPCs from BM,79 and sympathetic nerve signals are critical for maintaining Schwann cells and nestin+ stromal cells.163 SNS-driven atherosclerosis led to a reduction in BM niches and extravasation of HSPCs out of the BM and into the spleen, suggesting severe BM dysfunction.164. This evidence concerns the gene NES and atherosclerosis.