TNF and infection: Diop and colleagues have demonstrated that during initial hours of in vitro infection of microglia (CHME-5 cell line) with ZIKV, there is an up-regulation of chemokine receptors transcripts involved in leukocyte migration and synapse regulation as well as increase of iNOS and pro-inflammatory molecules such as tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β), and IL-6 [39].