CSF2 and neoplasm: Malignancy development occurs after neoplastic cells gain a means to evade the immune system.119 Cancer cells have generated various mechanisms to escape immune surveillance such as loss of MHC and expression of immunosuppressive factors such as IL-6, IL-10, TGFβ, prostaglandins, and Fas ligand, leading to apoptosis of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes.120,121 In addition, neoplastic cells are capable of recruiting TAMs by secreting chemokines, colony-stimulating factor (CSF-1), and VEGF.83,122