These findings are in agreement with the notion that other viral proteins and heparin-binding growth factors that are involved in the pathogenesis of HIVAN (e.g. Nef, Tat, VEGF-A) (He et al., 2004; Das et al., 2016; Korgaonkar et al., 2008; Tang et al., 2020) also activate the pERK pathway and can act in synergy with FGF-2 (Seghezzi et al., 1998). Here, S100B is linked to HIV-associated nephropathy.