DMD and Duchenne muscular dystrophy: We and others have reported defective autophagy and increased autophagosome efflux, termed autophagosome escape, in dystrophin-deficient muscle from mdx mice and the limited data from human DMD patients suggest similar outcomes (De Palma et al., 2012; Pauly et al., 2012; Spitali et al., 2013; Castets et al., 2016; Spaulding et al., 2018, 2020a).