CS and fetal growth restriction: Numerous animal models have also found that IUGR offspring exhibit indices of hepatic oxidative stress (e.g., increased lipid peroxidation and ROS; altered expression and activity of antioxidant enzymes) and impaired mitochondrial function (e.g., aberrant expression and activity of pyruvate dehydrogenase, citrate synthase, and complexes of the electron transport chain; disrupted ATP synthesis) during neonatal and adult life [40,41,42,43,45].