During CDI, expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), was lower in the combination therapy group than in the fidaxomicin monotherapy group (Fig. 1F), while the expression of IL-10, an anti-inflammatory cytokine, was higher in the CBM 588 monotherapy and combination therapy groups (Fig. S-1B). Here, TNF is linked to clostridium difficile infection.