Cytokine production (e.g., interferon-γ, IFN-γ; tumor necrosis factor α, TNF-α) and cytotoxicity marker production [e.g., granzyme B and CD107a (33)], are associated with TRM cell-mediated protection against malaria, indicating that these cells may be poised to respond to immediate threats (37). Here, TNF is linked to malaria.