In vivo, increased levels of HMGB1 were observed in BALF from smokers with COPD as compared with healthy (non-COPD) smokers (Ferhani et al., 2010), while increased serum levels of HSP70 and HSP27 are even proposed as diagnostic markers for COPD (Hacker et al., 2009). This evidence concerns the gene HMGB1 and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.