CSF2 and Cowden syndrome 1: Several studies have reported the protective roles of GM-CSF in the early stage of infection,294–296 and numerous clinical trials of human recombinant GM-CSF including sargramostim and molgramostim have been registered for the treatment of COVID-19; however, as mentioned above, GM-CSF indeed exerts a pathological function in the phase of CS, implying that blocking GM-CSF signaling may achieve clinical benefits in COVID-CS.